Who are multilingual writers?

When many of us hear the term multilingual writer, we may automatically think of international students or those who don’t speak English as their first language. However, the term multilingual writers literally means anyone who can write in more than one language or more than one dialect of a language. Many famous authors, including Chinua Achebe, W.E.B. DuBois, Kahlil Gibran, Xiaolu Gou, Junot Diaz, Ariel Dorfman, Eva Hoffman, Kazuo Ishiguro,  Jack Kerouac, Jhumpa Lahiri, and Vladimir Nobokov, are multilingual writers. With this in mind we should recognize the resources that Wesleyan’s multilingual writers bring to their writing like linguistic dexterity, multiple repertoires, and descriptive language expressions. . 

Dr. Ofelia Garcia from CUNY introduced the term “translanguaging” to explain how multilingual writers can choose from several grammatical constructions and vocabulary options when using language to write (or speak). Since its introduction, research in the area has expanded in second language development (Cenoz & Gorter, Enrique),  and into fields beyond second language development such as rhetoric (Canagarahahm, Jerskey,& Worden) , transdisciplinary writing (Wang), and decolonization studies (Hurst & Mona). Each argues that while meeting the standard language norm can be difficult for those who weren’t brought up speaking it, these writers are fluent in other versions of English and/or other languages. Thus, they bring multiple assets to their writing, such as rhetorical attunement, defined as “a literate understanding that assumes multiplicity and invites the negotiation of meaning across difference” (Lorimer Leonard 227). As writing professors, a better understanding of those assets and why students struggle to reproduce Standard American English will make us better writing mentors. Thus, this webpage is designed to introduce some of the challenges multilingual writers in your classes may encounter and how we can best support them. 

What do multilingual writers at Wesleyan want their FYS professors to know? 

The following quotes are from international first-year seminar students who were asked what they would like their writing professors to know about them:

“Multilingual background confers me flexibility by offering a sumptuous banquet of foreign literature and media for me to write my papers.”

“I am willing to learn new things and I love a lot of feedback!”

“It definitely takes me more time to come up with one paragraph than the average native English speaker because part of me still has to translate from one language to the other, while keeping in mind that everything has to be congruent”.

“I have many ideas. However, compared to writing my thoughts out, my oral expression may not be so clear.” 

Cultural Differences in Writing

Content: Writing professors who have never studied in another country may not be aware that not all cultures follow the same structures, citation practices, or even the same ideas about content in their writing. To illustrate the confusion, let’s look at it from the opposite perspective. A US student studying in France turns in their first paper and is shocked to see that the professor gave them a barely passing grade on an assignment because they “dared to critique Voltaire”. In contrast to standard American English (SAE) writing traditions, French students do not criticize masters–and the French are not the only culture that feels that way. Therefore, the first time a US professor asks such a student to criticize a theory or famous scholar, they may not know how to begin this assignment and may question the merit of doing so. 

Consequently, students from outside the US may need a little more guidance on how to do such an assignment. Rather than singling out students, there are options that help everyone in the class improve their writing. First, explain the content that you are expecting. Do you want your students to critique, analyze, summarize, or paraphrase? Are you expecting them to give their opinion on the topic or express what the experts have said? Then, provide examples of scholarly writing and point out how this example has met (or not met) the standards you are asking for in this assignment. Moreover, since Wesleyan is making efforts to promote an intercultural campus, take some time in class to think about and critique the SAE standards. You might try asking them to make a list of “What makes a good essay”. They can discuss it in small groups, which will allow more students to voice their experiences, and afterward have a class discussion on what writing norms are and where they come from. In addition, offer to meet anyone who has questions in office hours, and of course, recommend that students visit the Writing Workshop. 

Structure: Different academic traditions may have different expectations about how to structure essays and paragraphs. While most students from the US have studied “the five paragraph essay” with a thesis and structured content, students from outside of the US may be unfamiliar with thesis statements or topic sentences. Some writing traditions may encourage circular rather than linear thinking and others may encourage students to stray from their topic and return. Students whose essays appear to be “unfocused” or to “lack structure” may be doing exactly what they were taught to do.  A noteworthy difference in SAE from other traditions is the strict use of a thesis and topic sentences. Some students may find it odd that we give away so much at the beginning! Others may place what we would call their topic sentence at the end of the paragraph as a conclusion. Lastly, explain how US papers conclude and how that conclusion relates back to the writing prompt. Once students understand what is expected of them, their essays will improve dramatically. Again, they just need someone to explain the structure and be patient as they learn the style.

One approach to try is doing a structural analysis of a class reading. Point out the thesis statement and topic sentences, and show how the essay follows (or doesn’t follow) them. You can also have a conversation about how the reading meets (or doesn’t meet) SAE standards and whether or not it needs to. As homework, you might have students complete a “reverse outline” where they write out the thesis and list the topic sentences below it. Not only will they absorb more of the material; they’ll be critically analyzing the organization, which will help them to organize their own papers. 

Word Choice: One of the joys of writing is finding the “writer’s voice”. That can often come in the form of using idioms, metaphors, allusions, and cultural references, which is an area where multilingual learners shine. They may think of word combinations that we wouldn’t normally use in the US that perfectly explain what they are trying to say. They also may translate idioms or common metaphors from their other languages which will enrich the imagery of their text. However, their first attempts may sound awkward or may not make sense to someone who has never heard them before. If you think about it, US English expressions like “raining cats and dogs” don’t make a lot of sense, but most people from the US understand them. If a student has an odd-sounding phrase, ask them to explain it. You might be able to help them rephrase it in a common English form that will make more sense to their US readers.  

Grammar errors resulting from First Language Transfer    

Anyone who has ever studied another  language will tell you that some things just don’t translate. The result is what linguists call “negative language transfer” and it applies to grammar as well as vocabulary. Most Wesleyan students whose first language isn’t English have studied hard and mastered many aspects of the English language, but some grammar points and pronunciations are harder to learn than others. 

The hardest of that group are the forms that either don’t exist in their native language or are used differently in it. Articles (a, an, the) illustrate this point well. For example, definiteness and indefiniteness are expressed with entirely different forms in Slavic, Turkic, and Southeast Asian languages, and while romance languages have articles, they are used very differently. In addition, prepositions rarely translate smoothly between languages and English’s phrasal verbs (turn in, turn on, turn down) can be particularly difficult. Another noteworthy effect of language transfer you may notice is students forgetting the “ed” (past tense) or “s” (third person singular) at the end of verbs. Similarly to articles and prepositions, their languages may indicate past tense or third person singular in a completely different manner, making it hard to remember.  

It may be tempting as a writing instructor to correct every mistake in your students’ writing. However, a “bleeding paper” doesn’t help your student. In fact, it will most likely intimidate or, worse yet, discourage them. Since these rules for articles and prepositions are difficult to explain and have so many exceptions, the best way for an English language learner to learn is from repetitive correction without point reduction. If you notice consistent errors in these areas, choose one to focus on and let the student know that you are going to mark these mistakes to help them recognize and address them. Ask them to notice the mistakes and to ask you (or a writing workshop tutor) if they don’t understand your marking. 

If you’re noticing mistakes in other forms of verb tenses, if … then clauses, capitalization, punctuation, or other complex grammar issues, an explanation may be helpful for your students. If you feel comfortable explaining the grammar, then go ahead! However, make sure you start by asking your students if they can identify the problem. If they can, then it was a mistake (they simply forgot) and they don’t need an explanation. If they can’t explain it, then it is an error, meaning they don’t know the rule. Errors are the teachable moments. If you’re not comfortable teaching the grammar (many native English speakers can’t explain why, they just know it’s not correct), please direct them Beth Hepford, POP in TESOL (ehepford@wesleyan.edu) for an individual session on it. 

Ideas for supporting multilingual writers 

• First, remember that not all multilingual writers need special support. Before you make assumptions, look at their writing and see if they need more attention than any other student in your class.
• Don’t correct everything! A paper full of marks is intimidating, not supportive. If a student has a lot of grammatical issues, choose one or two that are repeated and focus on those. Be sure to let them know that if they don’t understand the correction, they can come talk to you about it. 
• Rather than a correction, try asking a question like “what did you mean by ___?” This is particularly effective with vague pronouns (“who is she?” when they meant to say he or they) or phrases where you generally don’t understand what was meant. Instead of writing “awkward phrasing” or “grammar issues” try making it a specific question which will direct your student to what the mistake is. 
• Focus on content rather than on perfect grammar. If a mistake interferes with understanding, focus on that type of error throughout the paper. If it doesn’t interfere with understanding, place it low on your priority list of corrections. 
• Expect slow progress. In order to get to Wesleyan, students whose first language isn’t English have already mastered the easy parts of the English language.Their struggle is now with the difficult parts and one correction isn’t going to be enough. Be patient and give consistent feedback.
• Ask yourself: Why do I value sentence clarity? Is it because you expect them to know how to write a clear sentence? Is it because it shows care for the reader? Or is it because it shows they understand the content you are teaching them? If you are more concerned with content knowledge, it might not be worth docking points for sentence level issues.  We can’t do it all!
• Don’t forget about the Writing Center faculty and undergraduate student staff! We’re here for you so don’t hesitate to reach out with questions, feedback on assignments design, referring students, or anything else!

For more information about giving feedback to multilingual writers see “The impact of teacher written feedback on individual writers” by Fiona Hyland.

Assignments that honor multilingualism

• Discussion/Group work prompt: Ask students to think about a language they have studied (most Wesleyan students have studied a foreign language in high school). What was difficult to learn in that language? With that in mind, what would be difficult for someone learning your first language? How would these differences affect the learner’s writing? (English can be either the first or second language in this scenario).
• Reading: Show support for multilingual writers by exploring writing from authors who write about multilingualism (Gloria Anzaldua, Amy Tan, Jhumpa Lahiri) or explore texts translated into English from their original language.
• Discussion/Writing Prompt: Have students try to speak in their “best British accent”. Discuss why it is okay in our minds to imitate this accent, but not a non-native English speaker’s language (or a stigmatized dialect of English). What about writing? Why is it okay to use British spelling, but not use other completely understandable versions of “World Englishes” (Singaporian, Australian, Indian, Nigerian) or dialects of English (African American English, Cogney, Spanglish, Cajun, Chinglish)? 
• Discussion/Writing Prompt: Discuss where the Standardized version of English came from and how those hierarchies of power affect non-native speakers of English and speakers of stigmatized dialects. Write about how language stereotypes affect those who don’t speak Standard American English. See John Baugh’s Housing study as a good example, or for a deeper explanation, see Linguistic Profiling by John Baugh or Racializing the Non-Native English Speaker by Gail Shuck. 

For more ideas on how to improve your courses for multilingual writers see “Multilingual Writers Across the Curriculum” by Michelle Cox. 

Select Academic References for Further Reading

Cenoz, Jasone, and Durk Gorter. “Pedagogical Translanguaging: An Introduction.” System (Linköping) 92 (2020): 102269–. Web.

García, Ofelia. “The Curvas of Translanguaging.” Translation and Translanguaging in Multilingual Contexts 5.1 (2019): 86–93. Web.

Hyland, Fiona. “The Impact of Teacher Written Feedback on Individual Writers.” Journal of second language writing 7.3 (1998): 255–286. Web.

Lorimer Leonard, Rebecca.. “Multilingual Writing as Rhetorical Attunement.” College English 76.3 (2014): 227–247. Print.

Shuck, Gail. “Racializing the Nonnative English Speaker.” Journal of language, identity, and education 5.4 (2006): 259–276. Web.

Suarez, Enrique. “‘Estoy Explorando Science’: Emergent Bilingual Students Problematizing Electrical Phenomena through Translanguaging.” Science education (Salem, Mass.) 104.5 (2020): 791–826. Web.